Discipleship in the First Century

By Dan Williams

Introduction

            The Church’s task of making disciples has historically never been considered an option; rather it is the imperative which our Lord Jesus Christ set for His disciples and all those who would later believe in Him through their testimony. This idea of the non-optional basis for the making of disciples is the primary burden of this essay. This is why I am investigating what it meant in its first century context. What would people have understood when Jesus or any teacher called them to himself as talmîd/mathetes/disciples. The imperative mood directing disciple making is found in Matthew 28:16-20. Additional Scriptures directing this work are in Mark 16:14–18; Luke 24:44–49; John 20:19–23; Acts 1:4–8. The goal of this paper is to investigate the term disciple as it was understood in its first century context to better understand its application in the modern Christian Church.

            So, let’s begin with a story to set the tone of the problem of how to understand the disciple and discipleship in the first century. You own a fishing business with your father, and brother. You’re not a learned person and never really had the time or the inclination for advanced Torah studies like some of your mates. You work hard, have a family, and are well settled in the community of Bethsaida.

            Then one day you hear about a man named John who might be a prophet. You know there hasn’t been a prophet in Israel for over 400 years. This is an exciting possibility, but it doesn’t immediately impact you, your family, or your business directly. While listening to John preach your brother Andrew hears him say that his cousin Jesus is the ‘lamb of God’ who takes away the sins of the world. After reflecting on this, Andrew identifies Jesus as the long-awaited Messiah, strong stuff. Your brother Andrew reports the news to you and persuades you to go and see Jesus.

            After being introduced, Jesus calls you Peter and then proceeds to call other people from Bethsaida to himself as followers.[1] Later you, and the others whom Jesus called, attend a wedding in Cana of Galilee. To your surprise Jesus turns several jugs of water into the best wine you’ve ever tasted. What could all this mean? You’re not qualified to be associated with a learned Rabbi who is also a miracle worker. You’re a fisherman and so is your brother. Don’t only the learned become talmîdim.[2]

            What did it mean to Peter and the others designated as disciples when Jesus called them? What culturally relevant background information did they have to understand Jesus’ expectations of them? How could they count the cost?[3] First, I will briefly explore the first century teacher-disciple relationship: of how the relationship would begin, the expectations of both disciple and teacher, and the discipling process in the context of the Greco-Roman tradition and its use by various Jewish factions. I will then compare them with Jesus’ method of choosing, his method of disciple making, and his expectations and those of his followers.

            To begin, the English word ‘disciple’ is taken from the Latin, discipulus, which means a pupil, student, or follower of a teacher.[4] This is the word which was used by Jerome in his Latin translation of the Bible, the Vulgate. This is a good translation of the Greek word, mathetes which is used in the New Testament 269 times.

            In the first century learned teachers (Rabbis) would often call the brightest young men to themselves to become their learners or followers, their talmîdim.[5] The world talmîd is the Hebrew word which is translated in the Greek New Testament by the word mathetes, and in the Latin Vulgate by the word discipulus and the English transliteration disciple. How are we to understand these different words as they were used in their respective cultural contexts? Understanding and applying the meaning of the concept in our modern Church settings is problematic.

            In his book Following the Master: A Biblical Theology of Discipleship, Michael Wilkins asks this same question, “What did the discipleship sayings of Jesus mean to those who first heard it while Jesus was with them? What was Jesus’ intention in his first-century setting?”[6] He goes on to say that after understanding this we can begin to properly engage in the making of disciples which is enjoined in Matthew 28:18-20 and other Scriptures.[7]

            S. I. Hayakawa writes that generally, “The words supporter and follower are perhaps the nearest synonyms: Supporter is the general term for one who allies himself with a cause or shows allegiance to its leader. . . Follower and disciple are related in that they emphasize devotion to a leader rather than to its doctrine or cause.”[8] In the general sense, both the Greek and the Latin words infer that a disciple is a committed follower of a great master. Hayakawa states that, “The general sense of the term has two common applications. (1) It was used nonreferentially to distinguish the disciple from the teacher (Mt 10: 24– 25; Lk 6: 40). (2) It was also used to designate the followers of a great leader or movement. Thus, we find disciples of Moses (Jn 9: 28), disciples of the Pharisees (Mt 22: 16; Mk 2: 18; Lk 5: 33), disciples of John the Baptist (Mt 9: 14; Mk 2: 18; Lk 5: 33; Jn 1: 35; 3: 25), and disciples of Jesus.”[9]

Discipulus – Latin

            The word ‘disciple’ which is used in most of the English translations of the Bible’ is a transliteration of the Latin word discipulus which, as was mentioned earlier, is a translation of the Greek word mathetes. Discipulus was used by Jerome in his Latin translation of the Bible.[10] It is understood to mean a pupil or student.[11]

            In a funerary relief depicting a teacher with three discipuli (pupils) we get some insight into the teacher-student relationship. The scene shows two boys seated on either side of their teacher as a younger boy is shown walking into the room. The older boys hold an open scroll. The younger boy enters from the right, holding wax tablets bound together by a leather strap. The relief was found in Neumagen near Trier and is dated to circa 180-185 CE and it is housed at the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier in Germany.[12]

            In an extensive article in JSTOR (Journal Storage), Michael Chiappetta provides a good deal of insight into education in Rome and the training of the pupils or discipuli.

Education in ancient Rome progressed from an informal, familial system of education in the early Republic to a tuition-based system during the late Republic and the Empire. The Roman education system was based on the Greek system – and many of the private tutors in the Roman system were Greek slaves or freedmen. The educational methodology and curriculum used in Rome was copied in its provinces and provided a basis for education systems throughout later Western civilization. Organized education remained relatively rare, and there are few primary sources or accounts of the Roman educational process until the 2nd century AD. Due to the extensive power wielded by the paterfamilias over Roman families, the level and quality of education provided to Roman children varied drastically from family to family; nevertheless, Roman popular morality came eventually to expect fathers to have their children educated to some extent, and a complete advanced education was expected of any Roman who wished to enter politics.[13]

            In having both an informal family as well as more formal tuition based educational systems in Rome and Greece, the question of the relationship and expectations of the teacher and students contributes to our understanding of just what the similarities and differences are, if any, between the ancient educational process of the discipulus or the mathetes and today’s disciple - student. In a paper on the relationship of disciples and teachers’ Tammen writes that in a survey of ancient sources, Greek, Roman and Christian, “…the relationship between disciples and teachers is more than just a transference of knowledge; while some aspects of the relationship differ between works, disciples are consistently presented not as passive listeners, but as active participants in the lives of their teachers, and, in many cases, as important agents in the transmission of their legacies.”[14]

            The concept of being active participants in the lives of their teachers and agents in the transmission of their teachings seems to align with the Jewish understanding of a Rabbi and his talmîdim.  It supports Jesus in His instruction to His disciples to carry on His teaching and to make disciples. The words used for ‘disciple’ and ‘teacher’ in both Greek and Latin carry the cultural weight of learning and transmitting the knowledge and potentially the wisdom of the teacher.

            The question could be raised as to how much the Roman and Greek concepts of education and the specific teacher – student relationship was carried into first century Palestine during the Roman occupation. That Greek was used during this time as a trade language with the west is well supported by the evidence and would promote the idea that the Rabbis were familiar with Roman and Greek understanding of the teacher - disciple relationship.[15]line requiring some form of instruction. The English word ‘discipline’ is derived from ‘disciple’ and originally meant to study. It has come to mean "treatment that corrects or punishes" and is from the notion of "order necessary for instruction."[16] A fisherm

Mathetes (μαθητής) – Greek

            As noted above, the Greek word mathetes is translated by the Latin discipulus in the New Testament and is generally understood to mean a student or a pupil. It could also be used to designate an apprentice.

            The student could be a student of any discipan, weaver, blacksmith, shoemaker, or any other trade requiring some skill to accomplish the goal was deemed to require the teacher – student relationship. Using the word mathetes indicated the necessary relationship of a learned teacher upon which the student was dependent.[17] But what was a student as the Greeks understood him or her? What were the expectations of the teacher, the parents, the society, the students themselves?

            We are fortunate in having a good deal of information on what the Greeks thought and how they approached education from the 5^th century BCE onwards. Herodotus, in his Histories, uses mathetes to describe how Anacharsis, the Scythian, was a student of Greek thought and had attempted to adopt Greek wisdom.[18] The passage from Herodotus is cited by Rengstorf as the earliest use of the word in Greek literature. He believes it sets the tone for its general usage denoting a person who studies under a teacher, a didaskalos. In his understanding there is no mathetes without a didaskalos. In Bromiley’s opinion the relationship between the two is significant and denotes complete dependence of the student on his teacher.[19]

            This necessity of a teacher – student relationship to pass on skills needed for everyday agricultural life, was developed very early and resulted in the various trade guilds. As Greek society became more prosperous, developed cities, and people had time to reflect on life and its meaning, a system of formal education was promoted. This type of education was physical as well as intellectual. In Athens, the emphasis began to turn more toward the intellectual whereas in Sparta the trend was toward the physical, especially the martial exercises.[20] Education was not sponsored or funded by the state at this time and formal education was generally limited to the wealthy.

            Ancient scholars like Isocrates, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Pythagoras began teaching rhetoric, philosophy, and mathematics, and disciples gathered around them. The fame of the teacher was the organizing point around which the various schools developed. For example, Isocrates was an influential classical Athenian orator. Growing up in Athens exposed him to teachers such as Socrates and Gorgias at a young age and helped him develop his rhetorical skills.[21] As he grew older and his understanding of learning developed, Isocrates disregarded the importance of the arts and sciences, believing rhetoric was the key to virtue. He came to believe that education's purpose was to produce civic efficiency and, political leadership and therefore, the ability to speak well and persuade became the cornerstone of his teaching.[22] However, at the time there was no definite curriculum for education. Each person taught what they believed to be important for the promotion of success.[23] Isocrates founded his school of Rhetoric around 393 BCE. The school was in contrast to Plato's Academy (c. 387 BCE) which was largely based on science, philosophy, and dialectic.[24]

            Socrates was the teacher (didaskalos) of Plato, who developed the Academy (named after the Greek hero Akademos).[25] Socrates’ dialogs make up the bulk of Plato’s writings. In the Meno, Plato makes a point of Socrates not charging money for his teaching, in contrast to the Sophists. Socrates believed that he himself had no knowledge or wisdom to convey, rather that he was only the mid-wife to learning. Due to his self-understanding and humility Socrates did not gather disciples around himself as the Sophists.[26] In one of the dialogs he responds to Theaetetus’ despair concerning his ability to learn wisdom by stating that he, Socrates, is not learned or wise but merely functioning in the intermediate role of mid-wife to encourage people to find wisdom. [27]

            In contrast to his teacher, Plato believed Athenians could obtain education through the experiences of being a community member, but he also understood the importance of deliberate training, or Higher Education, in the development of civic virtue.[28] Thus, his reasoning behind founding the Academy – which is often credited as the first university.[29]

            It is at this school where Plato discussed much of his educational program, which he outlined in his best-known work – The Republic. In his writing, Plato describes the rigorous process one must go through to attain true virtue and understand reality for what it actually is.[30] The education required for such achievement, according to Plato, included an elementary education in music, poetry, and physical training, two to three years of mandatory military training, ten years of mathematical science, five years of dialectic training, and fifteen years of practical political training. The few individuals equipped to reach such a level would become philosopher-kings, the leaders of Plato's ideal city.[31]

            Plato’s best-known disciple was Aristotle. In 347 BCE he founded his school in the Lyceum, a temple dedicated to Apollo in Athens. Aristotle’s more famous disciples are Theophrastus, who wrote a history of philosophy and works on botany and mineralogy; Eudemus of Rhodes who wrote histories of mathematics and astronomy; Meno who wrote a history of medicine; and Dicaearchus of Messene author of a history of civilization and a book on types of political constitutions.[32]

            In this brief synopsis of Greek education, the teacher was understood to be critical to the training of the student. The development of such skills of craftsmanship as leather working, carpentry, masonry, and blacksmithing depended on a teacher conveying his knowledge to his students. Techniques of study and reflection in philosophy, mathematics and rhetoric likewise depended on an able teacher with the emphasis being on knowledge and wisdom for a successful civic life. Emulating the life of the teacher in these early days does not seem to be primarily in view.

            By the time of the first century AD, the teacher-student relationship had progressively developed from learning a skill, whether shoemaking or mathematics, into a loyalty and emulation of the life of the teacher. Imitation of the conduct of a teacher became a significant feature of the disciple of a great master, either secular or religious, during the later Hellenistic period. Linus, admired for his skill in poetry and singing, had several disciples who were always characterized by the traits of their master.[33] Is this evolution reflected in the development of the Rabbinic view below? Did the Hellenistic understanding of not only learning the skills and knowledge of the teacher, but also of emulating his life in some way influence the Jewish understanding of education?

Talmîd – Hebrew

            Talmîd is the Hebrew equivalent of the common Latin and Greek words for ‘disciple’.[34] When attempting to understand discipleship in its first century context, there is a relative absence of disciple terminology in the Old Testament. The terms that later normally specified teacher-disciple relationships in Judaism (i.e., talmîd and limmûd) are virtually absent from the Old Testament.

            Examples of such relationships would be between Moses and Joshua, Elijah and Elisha, or Jeremiah and Baruch. Josephus alludes to these relationships using the Greek mathetes to describe them. The association between each of these pairs is identified by Josephus as that of a master and disciple.35 Philip Sigal believes that those occupying the roles of prophet, priest and king served as teachers and role models for the people to emulate in their following of Torah and their relationship with God, and these constitute discipleship relationships.[35]

             Just as mathetes (pupil, learner) is derived from the verb manthano, ‘to learn’, so talmîd is derived from the Hebrew verb limmûd, to learn. The talmîd is the taught one.[36] Talmîd is the equivalent of mathetes in later Rabbinical Hebrew, although it normally designates a “beginning scholar” in later Rabbinical use.[37]

            The early Jewish people believed the most important aspect of learning was knowing God, learning His expectations of them, and doing His revealed will.  Hirsch underlines how from the Hebrew Bible it can be easily recognized that Jews considered as one of the principal goals of life the moral and religious training of the people from childhood up.[38]

            Gracin reinforces this understanding by referencing the Scriptures, saying that, “So, God says about Abraham: ‘For I have chosen him, so that he will direct his children and his household after him to keep the way of the Lord by doing what is right and just’ (Gen. 18:19a, NIV). Additionally, festivals and ceremonies had for their object the infusion of religious and moral lessons in the children (Ex. 12:26; 13:8.14; Deut. 4:9; 6:20; 32:7,46). After parental instruction or if a child grew in a royal palace he was taught by tutors (2 King 10:1,5), the child passed into the hands of professional teachers (Prov. 5:13; Ps. 119:99) who were also called “the wise” (Prov. 13:20).”[39]

            In attempting to understand what disciples or talmîd were like in first century Judaism, the concept of multiple Judaism’s should be kept in mind. N.T. Wright strongly suggests that “…we must gain as accurate an understanding as possible of the Judaism(s) in which Jesus and Paul grew up…We must understand their worldview(s) and self-understanding(s) held by Jews at the time.”[40] Wilkins agrees, “Discipleship in Judaism reflects the remarkably complex character of Judaism as a whole at the turn of the Christian era… These disciples were individuals who were committed to a recognized leader or teacher or movement.”[41] Several of these perspectives are briefly described below.

Philo

            Philo was a Jewish philosopher living in Alexandria. His conception of discipleship reflects diaspora Judaism, with its attendant Greek influence upon Jews who were scattered throughout the Mediterranean world.[42] Philo presents Rebecca as the best example of the virtuous teacher and characterizes her servant as her disciple. He refers to Rebecca as a disciple (mathetes) of God. By this he shows that the perfect teacher is also a disciple of God. In his understanding the disciple displays true humility, and a lack of self-conceit.[43]

            I ended the section on Greek education by asking whether Hellenism had any impact on the Jewish understanding of the teacher-student relationship. Philo is an example of the two worldviews, Greek and Jewish, having similar methods, but with very different goals.

Pharisees and their Disciples

            The Pharisees form a distinct religious sect within first century Judaism. In the Gospels they are said to have disciples.[44] Josephus mentions the disciples (mathetai) of the Pharisees in his Antiquities.[45] He alludes to John Hyrcanus, one of the rulers of the Maccabean line, as a disciple of the Pharisees.[46] This indicates that this sect was active in the second century BCE.

            The Pharisees are part of what eventually became Rabbinic Judaism as described in the Mishnah (which means ‘study’ and makes up part of the Talmud).[47] The Pharisees believed they could trace their beginning back to Ezra c. 450 BCE. In following Ezra’s example of studying and teaching they sought to understand and do God’s will. This emphasis on study characterizes discipleship in the Jewish culture of Jesus’ time: studying of the Scripture and following a Rabbi[48] was expressed in three stages of education. These three stages of education within the Judaism of Jesus’ time were Bet Sefer (House of the Book) for boys ages 5 to 10, Bet Talmud (House of Learning) for ages 10 to 12, and Bet Midrash (House of Study) for youth 13 years and up. Bet Midrash was reserved for the talented boys who were thought to have the capacity to study with a Rabbi. They become the Rabbi’s talmîdim (disciples) and would later expect to become Rabbi’s themselves.

            This third stage of study is important for our understanding of how people would have reacted to Jesus calling them to be his disciples or talmîdim. They were not from wealthy homes with the leisure to study. They were working people, tradesmen, fishermen, farmers. They were well into their professional lives and as they had not been chosen for further study, they would not have expected such a call from Jesus. In addition, women were never invited to this third stage of study. Oluikpe says that:

The student, usually called a talmîd (disciple), would attach himself to and travel with the Rabbi as part of his education. His goal was to become like his Rabbi and learn his halakhoth until he internalized it... This continued until he became a full-fledged Rabbi or scribe at the age of thirty. Without training at the Beth Midrash, a man could not be recognized as formally educated. Though the first two stages (elementary schools) seemed to have been affordable and accessible to the average Jewish boy, the third stage (higher schools/Rabbinic academies) seemed to be for boys who were intelligent, talented and from well-to-do homes.[49]

            For this stage of education, Lancaster points out four key tasks of each disciple, claiming that these tasks describe the cultural context of the institution of discipleship that we read about in the Gospels.[50] The first task was to memorize their teacher’s words. The great Rabbis and Torah scholars of the first century did not write scrolls or books for their disciples. For them writing was reserved only for the Scriptures, and their own teachings were meant to be passed on orally. For this reason, their disciples studied by memorizing the Rabbis words. The second task was to learn their teacher’s traditions and interpretations, because it was expected that disciples would follow their Rabbi’s example. So, disciples would observe how his teacher kept the Sabbath, how he fasted, how he prayed, how he said the blessings over food, how he lived his life in all its aspects. The third task was to imitate their teacher’s actions. To live their lives as their Rabbi lived his. Finally, the fourth task was to raise their own disciples.

            This four-fold program of discipleship outlined by Lancaster sounds remarkably like that practiced by Jesus with some significant alternations. In the section bellow on Jesus these similarities and differences will be briefly explored.

Jesus’ Disciples

            Speaking about the cultural characteristics of the time and place in which Jesus lived and the significance of learning from a Rabbi within that culture, Lois Tverberg observes:

Jesus lived in a deeply religious culture that highly valued biblical understanding. Rabbis were greatly respected, and to be a disciple of a famous Rabbi was an honor. Rabbis were expected not only to have a vast knowledge about the Bible, but to show through their exemplary lives how to live by the Scriptures. A disciple’s goal was to gain the Rabbi’s knowledge, but even more importantly, to become like him in character. It was expected that when the disciple became mature, he would take his Rabbi’s teaching to the community, add his own understanding, and raise up disciples of his own.[51]

            Jesus is identified as a Rabbi in the Gospels by different groups of people: his disciples (Mark. 4:38; 9,38), common people who listened to him (Mark. 9:17), Torah teachers (Matthew 22:35-36), Pharisees (Lk. 19:39), Sadducees (Lk. 20:27-28), and the rich man (Mt 19,16). In addition, Jesus refers to himself in this manner (John 13:13).[52]

            Jesus seems to have taught his disciples according to the Jewish model of discipleship described above. discipleship in Judaism had a specific form and content and was organized in three stages. Thomas Lancaster connects the third stage of teaching, Bet Midrash, with Jesus’ statement when Lancaster says, “In Judaism in the days of the apostles, the job of a disciple was well understood. A disciple’s job was to become like his or her teacher. So, it is written for us in the Gospel of Luke, ‘Every [disciple], after he has been fully trained, will be like his teacher’ (6:40). At its simplest, discipleship is the art of imitation. It is the art of walking after a teacher.”[53]

            In referring to the disciple’s job to become like his or her teacher, Lancaster goes beyond the first century Rabbinical understanding of calling only boys and references Jesus’ extension of discipleship to woman. Several women are specifically mentioned by name in the Gospels as followers of Jesus. In Luke 8:1-3 it says, “Soon afterwards, He began going around from one city and village to another, proclaiming and preaching the kingdom of God. The twelve were with Him, and also some women who had been healed of evil spirits and sicknesses: Mary who was called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out, and Joanna the wife of Chuza, Herod’s steward, and Susanna, and many others who were contributing to their support out of their private means.”[54]

            This inclusion of woman in a company of disciples is well outside traditional Rabbinic practice and marks a significant difference between Jesus and other teachers. This level of training, which in Jesus’ case was inclusive of both men and woman, implied that the talmîd or disciple would imitate his Rabbi, honor him, and follow wherever he went. But that relationship also implied a master-disciple relationship, where the talmîd acted as a servant to his Rabbi. Tverberg clearly illustrates this when she writes, “A disciple was expected to leave his family and job to join the Rabbi in his austere lifestyle. Disciples would live with the Rabbi twenty-four hours a day, walking from town to town, teaching, working, eating, and studying. They would discuss the Scriptures and apply them to their lives. The disciples were also supposed to be the Rabbi’s servants, submitting to his authority while they served his needs. Indeed, the word ‘Rabbi’ means ‘my master,’ and was a term of great respect.”[55]

            For a talmîd, the goal was, while traveling with his Rabbi, to learn to understand but also to apply the Torah. When this process would come to an end, a talmîd would become a Rabbi. Through this description we can see the similarities between the way a Rabbi would raise up talmîdim in Bet Midrash and Jesus’ dealings with his own talmîdim.

            However, Jesus’ practice differs from the practices of his time. First is the way in which Jesus invites his disciples. The usual practice of that time was that a gifted student sought the Rabbi he would like to follow. Conversely, Jesus went out to seek his disciples and, in this way, he broke this pattern.[56] In the Gospels Jesus invites his disciples in the midst of their everyday work. Mark says in his Gospel that Jesus’ invitation to Simon and Andrew consisted of one sentence which Jesus said while they were throwing nets in the sea, “And He said to them, ‘Follow Me, and I will make you fishers of men.’”[57] Their reaction was recorded in the next verse, “Immediately they left their nets and followed Him.”[58] Although many sermons have been given on these verses, and we can think that their reaction was expected and self-explanatory, we can clearly understand their reaction only if we observe it within their cultural context. If Jesus was a Rabbi and people asked a Rabbi to allow them to follow them, would it not be a greater honor for these fishermen to hear a Rabbi’s invitation to follow him? They drop their nets and become His disciples.

            The second difference is whom Jesus chose not only young men but, as mentioned above, women were included among His talmîdim. In addition, not one of Jesus’ disciples seems to have had a prominent position in a synagogue or belonged to a priestly order. For the most part they were common workers who probably went through both Bet Sefer and Bet Talmud. As working-class people, it is unlikely that they would have participated in Bet Midrash. Based on the cultural context of that time Jesus’ disciples would have gone through at least Bet Sefer, so they were not absolute beginners in the knowledge of the Hebrew Bible. That would prepare them for a more advanced level of discipleship that Jesus would give them for His Bet Midrash. Jesus’ disciples, like any other disciples of Jewish Rabbis of that time, left their everyday lives in order to learn from a Rabbi in a close relationship by walking with him, listening to him, and imitating him.

Application for today’s Church

            This brief exploration of the historic first century context of the relationship of teachers and students from both the Greco-Roman and Judaic understanding can act as an aid in how we understand the various Scriptural injunctions to make disciples. The cultural context in which Jesus called His followers, informed those men and woman of what to expect from a learned, miracle working Rabbi. But Jesus, in stepping outside their cultural expectations, surprised them and those observing Him.

            He broke with some of the established customs in being inclusive in His selection of people. He welcomed working class men, social outcasts, and woman to follow Him and become part of His Bet Midrash. Jesus adhered to custom in His calling of these folk to live with Him, learn and emulate Him.[59] He again follows custom by telling His disciples to go and make disciples by teaching them all that He has taught them.

            Through understanding the way in which Jesus both adhered to and deviated from the cultural norms of His day, we can learn to do the same. Our modern systems of education are structed for the absorption of information rather than the emulation of the life of a wise teacher.[60] In our Church settings we tend to emulate these systems by focusing on large group meetings with little personal interaction available with a wise leader or Rabbi. We need to consider returning to the inclusive, familiar, relational model which Jesus modeled in our attempt to continue His work of making disciples.

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Lancaster, D. Thomas, King of the Jews: Resurrecting the Jewish Jesus. Littleton: First Fruits of Zion, 2006

Lodge, R.C., Plato's Theory of Education. Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2010,

Malina, Bruce J., Christian Origins and Cultural Anthropology: Practical Models for Biblical Interpretation. Atlanta: John Knox, 1986.

Martin, Michael, “3 Critical Characteristics of Modern Learning”. Association for Talented Development, 2018 https://www.td.org/insights/3-critical-characteristics-of-modern-learning

Matsen, Patricia; Rollinson, Philip; Sousa, Marion, Readings from Classical Rhetoric. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1990

McGrath, Alister, E. Mere Discipleship: Growing in Wisdom and Hope. Baker Books: Grand Rapids, 2018

Mounce, William D. ed., Mounce’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006

Neusner, Jacob. The Four Stages of Rabbinic Judaism. New York: Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002

Oluikpe, Ikechukwu Michael, Jesus and Rabbinic Schools: Implications for Adventist Education. Asia-Africa Journal of Mission and Ministry Vol. 11. 115-136, 2015

Sanders, E. P., Jesus and Judaism. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985.

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“Talmîdim-hakam,” Online Jewish Encyclopedia, https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14212-talmîd-hakam 

Tverberg, Lois, Listening to the Language of the Bible: Hearing It Through Jesus’ Ears. Holland: En-Gedi Resource Center, 2004

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the Gospels. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1992

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[1] John 1:35-51

[2] Isaac Broydé, ed. “Talmîdim-hakam,” Online Jewish Encyclopedia, accessed September 3, 2021,  https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14212-talmîd-hakam      

[3] In Luke 14:25-33 Jesus admonishes those who would be His disciples to count the cost before committing themselves.

[4] “Disciple,” Online Etymology Dictionary, (October 25, 2017), accessed September 3, 2021,  https://www.etymonline.com/word/disciple      

[5] “Talmîdim-hakam,” Online Jewish Encyclopedia

[6] Michael Wilkins, Following the Master: A Biblical Theology of Discipleship (Zondervan Kindle edition), 35

[7] Often termed ‘The Great Commission’, Matthew 28:17-19 seems to enjoin the eleven disciples to make disciples by teaching them all that Jesus commanded. The Church has historically extended this command from being the responsibility of the eleven to all believers. Donald A. Carson, “Matthew” in The Evangelical Bible Commentary, ed. Walter A. Elwell (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 8:596.

[8] S. I. Hayakawa, “Student: Pupil, Scholar, Learner, Disciple, Protégé,” in Use the Right Word: Modern Guide to Synonyms and Related Words (Pleasantville, N.Y.: Reader’s Digest Association, 1979), 596– 97.

Quoted by Michael J Wilkins, in Following the Master (Zondervan. Kindle Edition), 47

[9] Wilkins, Following the Master, 40

[10] Vulgate, (from the Latin editio vulgata: “common version”), Latin Bible used by the Roman Catholic Church, primarily translated by St. Jerome. In 382 AD Pope Damasus commissioned Jerome, the leading biblical scholar of his day, to produce an acceptable Latin version of the Bible from the various translations then being used. His revised Latin translation of the Gospels appeared about 383 AD. Encyclopedia Britannica, “Vulgate,” accessed September 6, 2021, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vulgate        

[11] Robert Scott, and George Henry Liddell, A Lexicon: Abridged from Liddle and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: University Press, 1974), 422

[12] Carole Raddato, “Roman Relief of a Teacher & Three Pupils,” World History Encyclopedia, accessed September 6, 2021, https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9650/roman-relief-of-a-teacher--three-pupils/       

[13] Michael Chiappetta, "Historiography and Roman Education", in History of Education Journal. 4 (4): 149–150. JSTOR 3659151, accessed September 6, 2021, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3659151?refreqid=excelsior%3A90a1f8f253ebb920df23993cbc536570 

[14] Steven Tammen, “The Relationship of Disciples and Teachers in Ancient Biography”, an unpublished paper presented in History of Late Antiquity, CLAS 4160:  December 7, 2016, accessed September 6, 2021, https://www.steventammen.com/writings/disciples-and-teachers-in-ancient-biography.pdf     

[15] G. Scott Gleaves, Did Jesus Speak Greek?: The Emerging Evidence of Greek Dominance in First-Century Palestine (Pickwick Publications, an Imprint of Wipf and Stock Publishers, Kindle Edition, 2015)

[16] “Discipline,” Online Etymology Dictionary (October 25, 2017), accessed September 6, 2021 https://www.etymonline.com/word/discipline             

[17] Karl Heinrich Rengstorf, “μαθητής”, in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, volume IV, ed. Geoffrey W Bromiley (Grand Rapids: W.M. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1967), 416

[18] A. D. Godley, Herodotus, The Histories, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1920), 4.77, accessed September 6, 2021, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0016,001:4:77&lang=original   

[19] “Didaskalos,” Theological Dictionary, 416

[20] Frederick G.A. Beck, Greek Education, 450-350 B.C. (Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2015)

[21] Patricia Matsen, Philip Rollinson, Marion Sousa, Readings from Classical Rhetoric (Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1990), 43

[22] Beck, Greek Education, 257

[23] Matsen, Rollinson, Sousa, Readings, 43

[24] Beck, Greek Education, 293

[25] Beck, Greek Education, 227

[26] Benjamin Jowett, with M.J. Knight, Translators, The Essential Plato (Quality Paperback Book Club, 1999), 456-471

[27] Jowett, with Knight, The Essential Plato, 1169-70

[28] Beck, Greek Education, 200

[29] Beck, Greek Education, 240

[30] R.C. Lodge, Plato's Theory of Education (Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2010), 303

[31] Jowett, with Knight, The Essential Plato, 188

[32] “Hellenistic and Roman philosophy,” in Encyclopedia Britannica Online, accessed September 6, 2021, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy/Hellenistic-and-Roman-philosophy  

[33] Wilkins, Following the Master, 77

[34] For Joshua as the disciple (mathētēs) of Moses, see Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, translated by William Whiston, first published in The Genuine Works of Flavius Josephus, the Jewish Historian, accessed September 6, 2021, https://lexundria.com/j_aj/0/wst,  6.84; for Elisha as the disciple (mathētēs) of Elijah, see Antiquities, 8.354; 9.28, 33; for Baruch as the disciple (mathētēs) of Jeremiah, see Antiquities, 10.158, 178. Josephus uses the term fifteen times.

[35] Philip Sigal, Judaism: The Evolution of a Faith, ed. Lillian Sigal (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988)

[36] Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1974), 541 (hereafter BDB). This derivation is also true for the Aramaic term talmîdha’; cf. Marcus Jastrow, ed., A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature (New York: Pardes, 1950), 2: 1673

[37] M. Aberbach, “The Relations Between Master and Disciple in the Talmudic Age,” in Essays Presented to Chief Rabbi Israel Brodie on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday, ed. H. J. Zimmels, J. Rabbinowitz, and I. Finestein, vol. 1, Jews’ College Publications, new ser., no. 3 (London: Soncino, 1967), 1– 24.

[38] Hirsch, Emil G., Kaufmann Kohler, Richard Gottheil, M. Güdemann, Cyrus Adler, Gotthard Deutsch, Joseph Jacobs, Education, (Jewish Encyclopedia, Kindle edition, 1906)

[39] Gracin, Discipleship, 208

[40] N.T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God, Volume I (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992), 147

[41] Wilkins, Following the Master, 82

[42] Max Wilcox, “Jesus in the Light of His Jewish Environment,” Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt, 2: 25, 1, ed. H. Temporini and W. Haase (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1982), 159– 85.

[43] Emil Schürer, The Literature of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus (Berlin: Schocken, 1973), 329-331

[44] Mark 2:18; Luke 5:33

[45] Matthew 22: 15– 16; Mark 2:18

[46] Antiquities, 13.289 quoted by Wilkins, Following the Master, 83

[47] “Mishna”, Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed September 6, 2021,  https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mishna        

[48] Jacob Neusner, The Four Stages of Rabbinic Judaism. (New York: Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002), 79

[49] Ikechukwu Michael Oluikpe, Jesus and Rabbinic Schools: Implications for Adventist Education. (Asia-Africa Journal of Mission and Ministry Vol. 11. 2015), 119

[50] Thomas D. Lancaster, King of the Jews: Resurrecting the Jewish Jesus (Littleton: First Fruits of Zion, 2006), 52-53

[51] Lois Tverberg, Listening to the Language of the Bible: Hearing It Through Jesus’ Ears. (Holland: En-Gedi Resource Center, 2004), 125

[52] Craig Evans, “Jewish Scripture and the Literacy of Jesus”, in Biblical Criticism to Biblical Faith: Essays in honor of Lee Martin McDonald, ed. William H Brackney (Macon: Mercer University Press, 2007), 48

[53] Lancaster, King of the Jews, 50-51

[54] Luke 8:1-3, NASB

[55] Tverberg, Listening, 126

[56] Ray Vander Laan, To be a Talmid (2019), accessed September 6, 2021, https://www.thattheworldmayknow.com/to-be-a-talmid           

[57] Matthew 4:19, NASB

[58] Matthew 4:20, NASB,

[59] In Luke 10 Jesus sends 70 disciples to heal the sick, cast out demons and spread the gospel.

[60] Michael Martin, “3 Critical Characteristics of Modern Learning” (Association for Talented Development, 2018), https://www.td.org/insights/3-critical-characteristics-of-modern-learning